Global Project Management - 3488 Words

Similarities and Differences between Domestic and Global Project Management. Global business practices are becoming increasingly common both for large multi-national organizations as well as small domestic businesses. Many businesses outsource work to other countries or contract people of organizations globally to complete project work or provide offshore services (Eberlein, 2008, p. 27). A better understanding of how to manage global projects is important to the body of knowledge about project management. The purpose of this study is to explore the similarities and differences between domestic and global project management. The research questions used to guide this study are 1. In what ways are domestic and global projects similar and†¦show more content†¦Management of project personnel is also an important responsibility of the project manager. Project human resource management involves identifying, recruiting, and maintaining a project team with the right mix of technical and knowledge experts (Kerzner, 2003). Project communication management involves creating a work environment that facilitates the proper communication channels for the collection and dissemination of information related to planning, implementation, and completion of the project. Project risk management involves identifying risks and incorporating processes and procedures to mitigate against risks to the completion of the project. Finally project procurement management involves identification and implementation of processes that facilitate the planning and procurement of resources and necessary documentation for completion of the project (Burke, 2001, pp. 8-9). During the project life-cycle, project managers are responsible for oversight of such tasks or processes as work breakdown structure, critical path methods (calculation of all the activities from start to finish to determine the duration of the project), resource smoothing, earned value, and configuration control (Burke, 2001). Many organizations are turning to management-by-projects approach because it provides flexibility, decentralized management responsibility, a more holistic or global way of conceptualizing problems and solutions, and problemShow MoreRelatedChallenges Of Global Project Management1629 Words   |  7 Pages Global Project Management is one of the most important topics when dealing globalization of an organization. It is the most significant part when trying to accomplish a goal or build a strategy for a new product or service in a new region. There are many characteristics for Global Project Management. Some of those characteristics will lead to advanced achievements. Global Project management can be defined through a framework that will simplify all negative indicators and will help lead organizationsRead MoreCase Study : Global Supply Chain Management Project2009 Words   |  9 Pages4.0. Project Scope Management 4.1. Collect Requirements Tools and technique: Interview: Formal interviews are conducted with the stakeholders by the project team in order to identify the needed requirements. Focus groups: This technique is held together with the stakeholders and SMEs to acquire their expectations in GSCMP. Below are the outputs from the requirements collected. 1. Requirements Management Plan Project Name : Global Supply Chain Management Project The Purpose of GSCMP requirementsRead MoreManaging A Global Enterprise Wide Project1207 Words   |  5 PagesThere are many items to take into consideration when managing a global enterprise wide project; after spending the last eight weeks working towards what it means to be a project manager of such an assignment we have come up with 10 tasks that must be met for successful project completion. They are as follows in no particular order; Define the team structure, work process, and communication channels- Management must prepare an infrastructure for effective functional teamwork and technology transferRead MoreLenovo Case Study1223 Words   |  5 PagesPROJECT MANAGEMENT IMPROVES LENOVO’S STRATEGY EXECUTION AND CORE COMPETITIVENESS I. Background In recent years, the personal computer (PC) industry has been developing by leaps and bounds. Global sales of PCs totaled 230 million units in 2006, representing a 9 percent increase over the previous year. Lenovo has a product line that includes everything from servers and storage devices to printers, printer supplies, projectors, digital products, computing accessories, computing services and mobileRead MoreSuccess Directing Technology Driven Business Transformation1297 Words   |  6 Pagestransformation in Fortune 500 and large public sector organizations delivering bottom line measurable benefit. Proven expertise in strategic business and IT planning, IT consolidation, project management, global delivery model, building Governance Structures/PMO and high-performance teams and driving change management. A trusted advisor to C-suite executives and key stakeholders known for making things happen by moving from vision and strategy to implementation and follow-through. A â€Å"go-t o guy† forRead MoreThe Initiation Of A Project1706 Words   |  7 PagesThe initiation of a project entails several elements that must be organized to ensure the overall success of the project. Planning, design, structure, and risk analysis are some of the areas that are essential in initiating a project. The group must thoroughly plan and organize the components of the project to corroborate that the proper elements and hierarchy are in place to validate that the project is executed smoothly and risks are minimized. Through comprehensive planning, an organization canRead MoreEssay about Project Planning and Control Methods1441 Words   |  6 PagesProject Planning and Control Methods Project planning and control methods came to be in the 1980s with the introduction of microcomputer software. In the 1990s project management was accepted into the mainstream business as a means for developing new products and services. In the 20th century project management appears to be the solution to many of the challenges confronting global business enterprises (Gray, C. Larson, E., 2003). Trends such as the globalization of business operationsRead MoreEssay on Analysis and Synthesis of Prior Research1253 Words   |  6 PagesSynthesis of Prior Research The companies that efficiently solve their projects issues and portfolio concerns will differentiate themselves from their competition. The projects that companies work to complete with the many different project methodologies demonstrate where the business is now, and the portfolio of projects of the organization demonstrate where the organization is headed. To effectively manage the tremendous number of projects that leaders face today in their organizations, they look to methodsRead MoreTransparency Reports And Reduction Of Carbon Footprint1432 Words   |  6 Pagesand United Kingdom regulated by the Depeartment for Environment Food Rural Affairs (2013). This has catalyses many corporation, such as Facebook and Google, to produce an environmental report that includes waste management, greenhouse and carbon emmission and many other indicators. Global Reporting Initiative has produced a reporting framework that is widely used today. As noted by Norman McDonald (2003) â€Å"if you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it†, this method serves as a measureable indicatorRead MoreApplication For The Position Of Program Delivery Manager Telecommunications1583 Words   |  7 PagesAs a seasoned and outcome driven project and program management professional with a proven track record of achievements aligned to this job requirement, I am excited to submit my application for the position of Program Delivery Manager Telecommunications as advertised recently on the SEEK. With significant industry experience in management and leadership roles, every time I exceeded expectations of my management and stakeholder by leveraging the ability of analytical, strategic and tactical thinking

The Rising Concerns of Underage Drinking Essay - 1923 Words

Alcohol is a drink that possesses a seducing effect to tempt many citizens. Adults worldwide consume countless cans of beers, wine, vodkas, and other alcohol beverages. However, its luring quality has been secretly shared to minors, resulting to a problem called Underage Drinking. This situation has existed for quite some time. In the past, underage drinking was considered a miniscule crime, and wasn’t strictly restrained or monitored. As we continued to remain oblivious, numbers of adolescent drinkers have gradually increased as they used the tolerant rules to their advantage. Now, the problem has become significantly noticeable, and we can no longer neglect it. High school, even middle school students have been found with†¦show more content†¦Children tend to absorb the contents with a sense of judgment. This is because their curiosity sometimes leads to terrible consequences, in this case, the addiction to alcohol. â€Å"A national study †¦ concluded that gr eater exposure to alcohol advertising contributes to an increase in drinking among underage youth. Specifically, for each additional ad a young person saw †¦ he or she drank 1% more. For each additional dollar per capita spent on alcohol advertising in a local market †¦ young people drank 3% more† (Alcohol Advertising and Youth). Therefore, the commercials do have a great impact to the number of drinking adolescents, since the number of underage alcohol consumption rises as advertisement rates rise. If such commercials continue to display on the media without any types of appropriate-content filters, the number of teenage alcoholics will continue to rise as years pass by. As a result, we must greatly reduce the number of commercials referring to alcohol products, to minimize the possibility to create future drinkers under the legal age. Education is another great way to prevent the number of teenage alcoholics from rising any further. We can control this situation w ith just a couple lessons and speeches to inform kids about the consumption of alcohol by explaining how it affects their mind psychologically. Sure, drinking may cause stress relief and relaxation to the teenagers burdened with the amount of schoolwork and deciding their future. However, whenShow MoreRelatedUnderage Drinking And Teenage Drinking1584 Words   |  7 PagesAlex Wilmore Joshua James, Instructor ENG 111 07 July 2015 Underage Drinking â€Å"With such compelling information, the question is why haven t we been able to do more to prevent the crisis of underage drinking? The answer is: rising the age to 25† is what Lucille Roybal-Allard once said, a U.S. Representative for serving in Congress since 1993. This statement has brought many to speculate of issues and debates. This expression opened the eyes of American people that often struggled to make this truthRead MoreUnderage Drinking And Teenage Drinking1584 Words   |  7 PagesAlex Wilmore Joshua James, Instructor ENG 111 07 July 2015 Underage Drinking â€Å"With such compelling information, the question is why haven t we been able to do more to prevent the crisis of underage drinking? The answer is: rising the age to 25† is what Lucille Roybal-Allard once said, a U.S. Representative for serving in Congress since 1993. This statement has brought many to speculate of issues and debates. This expression opened the eyes of American people that often struggled to make this truthRead MoreShould the Minimum Drinking Age Be Lowered1128 Words   |  5 PagesTayrin O’Rand 14 March 2012 Should the Minimum Drinking Age be Lowered? The minimum drinking age became a hot topic ever since it was set to twenty one years old. It is a law not everyone welcomes with open arms, one that has the most impact in the lives of adolescents and if violated, one that can put a state at risk of forfeiting ten percent of its annual federal highway appropriation. John M. McCardell Jr., president of Middlebury College; founder and president of Choose Responsibility,Read MoreIntroduction. Alcohol The Debate Of The Ages, Between The1730 Words   |  7 Pagesold, researchers, people, alcohol companies, and parents. Within this topic, always comes the concern of when is it appropriate for people to legally drink alcohol. Currently, in the United States the minimum legal drinking age (MDLA) is the age 21. There are many reasons and sciences behind why the U.S. choose the age of 21. On July 17, 1984 the president signed an act called National Minimum Drinking Age Act (NMDAA). This mandated all the states, to federally instate this law within time all cameRead MoreLowering The Legal Drinking Age1387 Words   |  6 PagesThe concerns about safety involving alcohol, including alcohol-related fatalities, â€Å"binge drinking†, and long-term health effects, will not be compromised by lowering the legal drinking age to nineteen in the United States. Activists who wish to raise the legal minimum age frequently discuss the ways that driving while intoxicated endangers countless lives every day in the United States, and is an increasing problem in model Europe as well. However, drunk driving increases will secrecy, not withRead MoreNational Minimum Drinking Age Act Essay719 Words   |  3 PagesIn 1984 the United States Government approved the National Minimum Drinking Age Act that required that â€Å"the States prohibit persons under 21 years of age from purchasing or publicly possessing alcoholic beverages as a condition of receiving State highway funds.† Even though this bill was nowhere near the magn itude of the prohibition act that was passed less than a century before it, the act still damaged the relationship between individuals, firms, and the United States government. Although theRead MoreUnderage Alcohol Drinking And Cigarette Smoking1398 Words   |  6 PagesThe underage alcohol drinking and cigarette smoking has been a consistent problem for the last few decades. Majority easily blame marketing advertisements to this problem particularly to the rising percentage of alcohol, cigarette, and drug abuse among teens. While this may seem unfair to marketing industry, there may be some truth to that according to research. This study will focus on the probability to ban marketing advertisements of alcohol, cigarette and medically prescribed substances as theRead More The Drinking Age Should Be Lowered Essay2234 Words   |  9 Pageslinked to drinking underage. The legal drinking age in many states is twenty-one years old. The purpose of this law is to keep minors out of dan ger: away from drunk driving, alcohol poisoning, and injuring the brain before it is fully developed. The government supports the belief that people are not ready or responsible enough for alcohol until this age. However, various professors and researchers are discovering ways to disprove this belief. These people think that reducing the drinking age toRead More Controversial Television Advertising Essay1498 Words   |  6 Pagesadvertising standards. Some ads a media company will simply refuse to accept (Peart, Karen N). Concerns have been raised about Beer advertising, Cigarette advertising, Sex advertising, Political advertising, and food advertising to children. Alcohol advertising is a primary concern for many Americans who believe that alcohol advertising in media directly influences the frequency of underage drinking. While drinking among youth and young adults has declined over the last six years, a recent study by theRead MoreEffects Of Alcohol Consumption On The Uk1630 Words   |  7 PagesAlcohol consumption in the UK has a clear tradition of having moderate and heavy drinking as seen in Plant and Plant s (2006) analysis of trends in alcohol consumption. It is also notable that most concerns about levels of alcohol consumption is directed particularly towards young people which most consider to be a link to crime and anti-social behaviour. As a result, there is no denying that a stigma has been attached to young people and alcohol. In the UK, general consumption is on a rise. Data

Motivation and Work Efficiency for Productivity- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theMotivation and Work Efficiency for Productivity. Answer: Motivational techniques have become one of the most powerful weapons of the managers in handling the productivity of the employees. A manager who is being able to correctly motivate his employee will be able to churn out better productivity from him by directly enhancing his efficiency in work. A highly efficient employee will be able to surpass the organizational objectives much more easily and with greater enthusiasm. Therefore researchers nowadays are of the opinion that managers who use motivational techniques help to develop the skills and knowledge of the workers and thereby increase their efficiency by which better quality of work is produced long with higher productivity (Trepanier, Fernet and Austin 2015). In the present article, the author had also supported the view and has given a thesis statement that managers need to use the proper motivational tool to the correct category of employee so that they can increase the efficiency and bring out the best output from the employ ees in the organization . The essay will first find out the strength and weakness of the study. It will then provide a personalized view of the study which will then be followed by supportive statements from other article journals provided by eminent researchers. The main thesis statement which is identified in the present article is that motivation provides greater chance of developing the efficiency of work by the employers and mangers should also use different types of motivational tools according to the particular category of the employees so that each can bring out the best outcomes in reaching high productivity. The main strength which is identified in the article is that the author had created a very good background for the entire study which develops clear description to the reader and also helps them to understand the main rationale behind writing the paper. Moreover the author had chosen a very interesting topic of discussion as the paper would help a large number of managers to correctly assess their employees and thereby develop motivational tools for them so that they can also increase the productivity in the organization. The author had first started the literature review with the meaning of the word efficiency and how it has been perceived over the years in workplace. They have done extensive research for this paper and the definitions given by different authors on the term of efficiency is the proof behind them. Secondly after giving information about the term efficiency to the readers, the authors have moved to linking the term of motivation with efficiency and by step by step pro cedure they have wonderfully linked the terms together showing the reader about how motivation can develop efficiency and productivity at work place. They have established the benefit of the motivation on development of efficiency in the employees and thereby help the budding managers to develop an understanding of the benefits they can themselves get in the organization so that they can use the right motivational perspectives. They have provided the benefits also in bullet manner for easy jotting down of the important points for benefits that the managers can get. A very good feature that had been observed in the paper is that they have provided information about the different theories that help to understand the requirements of the different employees and then establishing a connection of the importance of motivation with each of the theories so that a strong base is provided to the readers about how motivation is helping to manage the theoretical basis if the needs of employees ( Olafsen et al. 2015). Moreover, it is also seen that the author had been particular in his approach and thereby had provided short description of each of the theory within brackets so that the readers do not face difficulty if they are unaware of the theories. The authors have also provided information of different types of motivational techniques which had been used over the years so that in order to make the readers understand how different techniques like intimidation, identifying with the occupation as well as institution, punishment as well as rewards, competition and reward are helping mangers over the world in increasing efficiency of the workers. Moreover this paper will extremely helpful for the mangers to develop an idea about how they should behave in a way which would help them to increase the efficiency among the workers. Different types of behaviors that are mentioned by the authors are like helping to express their concerns, listening to them with attentive ear, behav ing with them with warmth and others. The budding managers will be benefitted from this discussion as they can modify their behaviors accordingly so that they can motivate the workers more for better productivity. Therefore the entire section has been the strength of the paper as it had helped the readers to gradually develop an idea about the importance of motivation and also helped them to understand the different motivation technique, helpful behaviors and others which had helped readers to understand the importance of motivation in present day workplace. The first weakness of the paper that has been identified is that the paper lacks a discussion part. Discussion part is very necessary after finding the results so that the author can make the readers understand the significance of the findings and how it can help them gather knowledge on a particular topic (Samnani and Singh 2014). Secondly, it is seen that the tests that they have selected for the statistical analysis have been represented in a complicated manner making it difficult for the readers to develop an idea. It I seen that they have categorized the motivation tool into three types but they have not mentioned exactly what kind of motivational is exactly made by the tools. Moreover, they have used in separate categories if employees like based on the age, income, education level and many others. They have made the calculation section extensive which is making the reader confused about what to expect from the statistical analysis. Moreover it is also seen that in the conclusi on part written by the author is not serving its purpose. In the conclusion part, they had written the results of the research but they have not concluded the information obtained from the research. They have just suggested that a particular tool is having better effect on a particular category of employees but they have not discussed the rationale or the effects of the result properly or how the result could help us. They should have clearly provided a discussion part and also a concluding part in order to shape up the information collected from the study which would have helped to satisfy the knowledge of the readers who are going through the paper (Sterling and Bixall 2013). Moreover another negative aspect which was also identified that the language used by the writer while describing the results are formed of lengthy sentences and are confusing to the readers as lot of information seem to gather up together which is resulting including the clear picture of the study. Difficult statement like Similarly, it has been observed that, the psycho-social tools motivation level of the low income segment is validly high in terms of statistics than the high income segment and the organizational managerial tools motivation level of the middle income segment is validly high in terms of statistics than the high income segment. It is easier for the low income segment to accept and be motivated by the present motivation tools and opportunities, than of the high income segment makes the understanding difficult. This should have been providing in a tabular part which would have helped the leaders in developing a clear scenario of the work (Njorge et al. 2014). Although the article has certain positive as well as negative points, but my personal opinion is that the article would be extremely helpful for managers who would be trying to influence his employees for better productivity. Moreover, motivation is indeed a very good method for increasing the efficiency and workplace and it is personally believed that a manger that motivates his people will always have a higher advantage not only for increasing efficiency and productivity but also in developing a wonderful work place environment (Deci and Ryan 2014). This environment will continuously urge the employees to try their best to meet the organizational goals and objectives and will also help them to maintain a teamwork among themselves which will in turn bring the best outcome (Lazaroiu 2015). So I personally feel that this article which is highlighting the different motivational tools importance in different categories of employees will be helpful to a wide range of budding managers. An article which was published in the European Journal of Business and Management in the year 2014 by Shahzadi et al. also described the impact of employee motivation on employee performance. The author had stated that employee motivation is considered as a driving force which helps in driving the employees towards attaining specific goals as well as objectives of the organization. They have found significant relationship between employee motivation and employee performance by regression analysis. They have also found out that intrinsic rewards have positive relationship with employee motivation and performance. This study also suggested that employee perceived training effectiveness to have negative relation with motivation. Osabiya and Joseph had published a paper in the year 2015, which states that workers who are motivated has a higher sense of belonging, achievement and recognition. If the workers of an organization are encouraged by motivation, they would be striving to make su re that they would identify with the organization. As they would be highly motivated, they would be performing functions which would be characterized by better sense of responsibility, efficiency and humility. Seminars, workshops, periodic performance reviews and basing recognition upon systematic evaluation all help in motivating workers. Form the publication of the work of Ackah in 2014, theories of motivation were studied in the industry of the regions of Ghana. Several theories have been discussed to understand what might affect motivation. The work showed that motivated employees are more satisfied with their jobs and are less likely to resign forms their jobs in comparison to those who are not motivated. Managers are requested to understand what form of motivation excites the employees and also learn the different need theories to understand them to increase job performance. Conclusion: The paper is indeed important as it is providing a very important message to the budding mangers and enthusiastic readers. The paper suggests that managers should try tout different motivational tools to motivate employees which will in turn develop efficiency and performance of the workers. They also help to keep the workers satisfied which make them comply with the organizations objective. All these result in higher productivity. However different tools have different motivational effect on the workers and therefore managers should develop knowledge on the categories of employees and then apply their motivational tools for the best productivity. References: Ackah, D., 2015. The impact of motivation on employee performance in the manufacturing industry in Ghana.Global Journal of Management Studies and Researches,1(5), pp.291-310. Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M., 2014. The importance of universal psychological needs for understanding motivation in the workplace.The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory, pp.13-32. Lazaroiu, G., 2015. Employee Motivation and Job Performance.Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations,14, p.97. Njoroge, C.N. and Yazdanifard, R., 2014. The impact of social and emotional intelligence on employee motivation in a multigenerational workplace.Global Journal of Management And Business Research. Olafsen, A.H., Halvari, H., Forest, J. and Deci, E.L., 2015. Show them the money? The role of pay, managerial need support, and justice in a self?determination theory model of intrinsic work motivation.Scandinavian journal of psychology,56(4), pp.447-457. Osabiya, B.J., 2015. The effect of employees motivation on organizational performance.Journal of public administration and policy research,7(4), pp.62-75. Samnani, A.K. and Singh, P., 2014. Performance-enhancing compensation practices and employee productivity: The role of workplace bullying.Human Resource Management Review,24(1), pp.5-16. Shahzadi, I., Javed, A., Pirzada, S.S., Nasreen, S. and Khanam, F., 2014. Impact of Employee Motivation on Employee Performance. Sterling, A. and Boxall, P., 2013. Lean production, employee learning and workplace outcomes: a case analysis through the ability?motivation?opportunity framework.Human Resource Management Journal,23(3), pp.227-240. Trpanier, S.G., Fernet, C. and Austin, S., 2015. A longitudinal investigation of workplace bullying, basic need satisfaction, and employee functioning.Journal of occupational health psychology,20(1), p.105.

The Problems of Web Accessibility Essay Example

The Problems of Web Accessibility Essay Increased interaction of elderly and disabled people with web content after the setting up of World Wide Web (WWW) has created problems such as Web Accessibility. With the increase in users of Geographical Information System (GIS), it also started facing the problem of web accessibility issues. The users started interacting with the maps extensively in the recent years which ultimately intensified the web accessibility problems in GIS applications. User interaction content evaluation are helpful in identifying the web accessibility difficulties faced by GIS application users. Web accessibility problems can’t be identified by automated tools or guidelines but users are involved for that purpose. To identify the accessibility problems of users at initial stages, User Centred Approach is used in which users are included in the development process. With the help of user interaction evaluation and content evaluation the author attempts to identify the accessibility issues in GIS applications in this research project. A case study of web based GIS application called MapQuest is undertaken to discover the web accessibility issues pertaining in GIS applications. Another web based GIS application called Google Maps along with MapQuest was evaluated for identifying usability issues. The usability evaluation of aforementioned two GIS application were conducted using special criterion. Different research methodologies such as usability tests, questionnaires etc were carried out on users from different backgrounds. The report concludes with recommending UCD approach especially in development process through which the web based GIS application’s accessibility can be improved and enhanced. We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This research project also suggests ways to improve the usability of GIS applications on the basis of studies conducted. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACTi TABLE OF CONTENTSii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1 1. 1 Problem statement:1 1. 2 Aims:2 1. 3 Objectives:2 1. 4 Resources:3 1. 5 Risk:3 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW4 2. 1 What is GIS? 4 2. 2 Potential of GIS4 2. 3 Role of GIS/ Web based GIS5 2. 4 Web Accessibility7 2. 5 Importance of Web Accessibility8 2. 6 Web Accessibility Guidelines8 2. 7 Web Accessibility Evaluation9 2. 8 What is User Centred Design (UCD)10 2. Advantages and disadvantages of UCD13 2. 10 Elements of UCD13 2. 11 UCD and Web based GIS14 2. 12 Usability definitions and its role15 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY19 3. 1 Research Process19 3. 2 Literature Review20 3. 3 Experiment21 3. 4 Questionnaires22 3. 5 Interviews23 3. 6 Case study23 CHAPTER 4 EMPIRICAL STUDY25 4. 1 Planning for Web Accessibility Test25 4. 2 Dichotomous method Vs Continuous numerical measurement method25 4. 3 We b Accessibility Guidelines26 4. 4 The need for automatic evaluation27 4. 5 Properties of Good Web Accessibility Metric27 4. Web Accessibility Barrier (WAB)28 4. 7 Construction of plan to evaluate the Web Accessibility of GIS Website MapQuest29 4. 8 Google Maps MapQuest usability testing35 4. 9 Questionnaire36 CHAPTER 5 RESULTS / ANALYSIS37 5. 1 First Evaluation- Standard Review Method:37 5. 2 WAB Score of MapQuest:42 5. 3 Second Evaluation Goal Question Metric Method (GQM)44 5. 4 Over All response of Questionnaire44 5. 5 Role of UCD (User Centred Design) in Accessibility47 5. 5. 1 Interview Results48 5. 6 Section 249 5. 6. 1 Results achieved from usability tests:49 5. 6. List of observation from usability tests51 5. 6. 3 Results from the questionnaires51 5. 6. 4 Comparison of Google MapQuest53 CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS AND VALIDITY STATEMENTS55 SECTION I55 6. 1 Discussion55 6. 1. 1 Perceivable56 6. 1. 2 Operable57 6. 1. 3 Understandable57 6. 1. 4 Robust58 6. 2 User Centred D esign and Accessibility58 6. 2. 1 User Centred Design59 6. 2. 2 User Centred Design and Accessibility Problems59 6. 3 Validity Statement60 6. 3. 1 Credibility60 6. 3. 2 Transferability60 6. 3. 3 Dependability61 6. 3. 4 Confirmability61 6. 4 Section II62 . 4. 1 Effectiveness62 6. 4. 2 Usefulness62 6. 4. 3 User Reaction63 6. 4. 4 Consistency63 6. 4. 5 Architectural and Visual Clarity63 6. 4. 6 Functionality64 6. 5 Validation64 6. 5. 1 Credibility64 6. 5. 2 Transferability65 6. 5. 3 Dependability65 6. 5. 4 Conformability65 6. 6 Selection of Usability Criteria65 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND FUTURE WORK67 7. 1 Conclusion67 7. 2 Suggestions68 7. 2. 1 Suggestions for Google Maps69 7. 2. 2 Suggestions for MapQuest70 7. 3 Future Work71 REFERENCES:72 APPENDIX A80 APPENDIX B86 APPENDIX C94 APPENDIX D96 APPENDIX E98 APPENDIX F100 APPENDIX G101 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Problem statement: In the early days of Geographical Information System (GIS), not much emphasize was put upon how users interact with GIS but only on gathering and presenting more and more geographical data. But today, research on geographical data use is focusing more and more on how users interact with this data (Wilson et al, 2008). When GIS became available on the web, its user base expanded dramatically and now it is not only for geographers or others who know geographical terms but also for naive users. With the expansion of the pool of targeted users with variety of skills and knowledge, there is a need of more user-centred design of GIS. Although great advancements have been made concerning technical aspects and collecting geospatial information, there is a lack of research on human interaction with GIS and behaviour factors (Pick Gray, 2006). There may be two ways to enhance the accessibility of GIS Applications; either teaches the non expert users about GIS or make GIS usable for non experts through user centred design. The first approach to enhance the accessibility has limitations due to the large and rapidly growing number of non expert users and their lack of understanding of GIS terminologies. Yet another issue is that while making GIS more users centred, the true shape and most of the features of GIS should not be compromised. Usability is important concerning the web and if any website has problems like file downloading takes time, no clear navigations and not oriented towards the needs of the users, then users get frustrated and they will not use this website in future (Barnum, 2002). The interface of the web application must be so simple that experienced and non experienced users can easily use it and fulfil their requirements with it. The users are only satisfied when they can achieve their goals in a successful and efficient way. (Dillon, 1994) Usability evaluation has methodologies that help to measure usability aspects in system interfaces and also identify the problems. During the interface design process, Usability evaluation has an important role that includes interactive cycle of designing, prototyping and evaluating (Ivory Hearst, 2001). Usability evaluation methods play an important role in the designing of most GIS applications because usability aspects included in product design give credibility to company and customers are more satisfied with the products. Map applications are nowadays used by many users who have less experience in using the geospatial data, so usability aspects give benefits to the users accessing internet based services which contain easy to use and attractive exploring functions. Usability thus has an important contribution in the development of successful web-based GIS applications (Nivala et al. , 2008). Koua et al. (2006) proposed usability evaluation criteria for GIS applications; this evaluation helps to assess the ability of GIS applications regarding user performance and satisfaction. This evaluation is very important for evaluation of web-based GIS application because many usability issues can be taken care of through usability testing. This dissertation will evaluate and discuss the accessibility and usability issues faced by users with different disabilities, different knowledge and different social environments. It will aim to find out how can user centred design (UCD) be helpful to enhance the accessibility of web based GIS? 1. 2 Aims: The goal of this dissertation is to explore issues related to the accessibility of GIS by elderly and disabled people through user-centred approach, and investigate the end-users requirements by conducting usability test, questionnaires and interviews. 1. 3 Objectives: To explore issues related to the accessibility of GIS through user-centred approach * To study the common problems faced by naive users in using GIS applications * To find out the common design attributes for GIS applications that can be accessible for all types of the users * To prove the importance of the end-users in all phases of software development * To study the UI design of GIS and identify shortcomings that can be tuned to increase the accessibility * To identify the role of UCD design in designing GIS applications which are more accessible to users of all abilities * To identify various usability issues. To explore various web based evaluation techniques. To explore such criteria for usability evaluation that can be especially relevant for web-based GIS applications. These criteria could be in relation to the specific challenges that these applications have, and might be somewhat different than traditional usability criteria, due to the fact that usability evaluation was developed earlier than web-based GIS applications. 1. 4 Resources: The resources needed to complete this dissertation successfully will be Library Services, Internet. Library service will provide access to books, journals, articles to conduct the research required to complete the dissertation. Internet services will also be used extensively for research and also it will be useful for sending questionnaires to the volunteers, and analysing the case studies that will be used in this dissertation. Also ‘EvalAccess 2. 0’ tool which is software and will be used to compare the accessibility of GIS applications. 1. 5 Risk: This dissertation will focus on accessibility and usability issues of disabled people as a whole. Because of time constraint it doesn’t choose limited users from each category of disability. Choosing each category of disability would bring up more concise results. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is organized into three sections. Section 1 discusses the role of Web GIS, the potential of Web based GIS and who are its users. Further, HCI related issues in web based GIS are discussed. Section 2 discusses the evolution of Web Accessibility and the importance of accessibility of web contents. It also researches the guidelines and web standards regarding accessibility made by the international community World Wide Web consortium (W3C). Then the accessibility of web based GIS. In section 3 the overlook of what is User Centred Design, its elements and relevance of User Centred Design and Accessibility is presented. 2. 1 What is GIS? Good science is said to begin with clear definitions; but it is hard to give a clear cut definition of geographical information systems. As a result, different definitions have been proposed with the passage of time depending on the context. So we can define the term geographical information system in a variety of ways and each definition depends upon what we are searching for. The immense in GIS in recent years is due to the advancement in other technologies and fields that correlate and support the GIS system, such as geography and cartography, geo-visualization, computer science, database theory and mathematics field. Ron Abler has defined GIS as â€Å"Not just one but many simultaneous technological revolutions† (Clarke, 2004). So it is clear that GIS is not a new killer-application but it is an essential and innovative application like spreadsheet, database management systems and word processors. Another author, Peter Burrough, has defined GIS as â€Å"A powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes†. Different authors have tried to define GIS in terms of its functionality. So another definition of GIS is â€Å"An automated system for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data†. (Clarke, 2004) 2. 2 Potential of GIS From the above it can be concluded that geographical information systems are known as powerful and integrating tools for managing and analyzing geo spatial data. The merging of the GIS technology with internet has introduced a new area of research referred to as web based GIS, on-line GIS, internet GIS and internet distributed GIS services. As accessibility to the web is easier for every one; web based GIS plays a major role by offering GIS functionality on the web (Kraak, 2004). Initially static maps have been developed then interactive maps with zooming features were introduced and now dynamic maps have been introduced with multiple features to give maximum functionality and accessibility to its users as a virtual communication tool. Web based GIS is still an emerging field and it is a broad area which involves a lot of issues that still need to be researched, such as spatial analysis and modelling, spatial database designing, wireless and mobile services and 3D data access and query. (Dragicevic, 2004) The World Wide Web has also altered the role of maps and makes them more dynamic. The map can be an essential part of the search engine, especially if we are referring to geospatial data. Maps can also play an important role by acting as an interface for geographical and non geographical information on the net. Maps can be helpful in guiding us from location ‘A’ to ‘B’, viewing the arrangement of the landscape, displaying urban plans and show changes occurring in population distributions. Hardware and software developments have made a tremendous change in the scientific and social needs for spatial data and for maps. The web not only presents dynamic data but also gives the user the ability to interact with the system, and there is subsequently a growing demand of the current users for faster and real time access to data. The role of the maps is definitely central in the web based GIS environment. The dynamic and interactive nature of the maps assists the users in solving geo-spatial analysis problems. (Kraak, 2004) 2. 3 Role of GIS/ Web based GIS The role of GIS is broad and it can act as an information system, support for decision making and may be helpful for emergency management, crises management and earth quake situations. Clarke (2004) quotes that Jack Estes and the late Jeffrey Star has taken GIS as an information system and they defined this as â€Å"An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geo-graphic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatial-referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working with the data†. Based upon the above definition we can say that GIS is an information system that answers the user‘s queries. Whenever it receives a query from the user side, it collects relevant data, filters and sorts that data and then displays it before the user in a relevant form. Thus we can say that a GIS tool gives the solution of generic problems. GIS has proven its importance worldwide and web based GIS technology has shown its advantages in a variety of areas such as planning applications, decision making, management of historical buildings, and e-government etc. Web based GIS fulfils the requirements of e-government by sharing geographical data both within the organization and with the outside world. Geography is in some sense the glue that can integrate the data scattered in different departments and lying at different locations. Web based GIS is the first step in e-government that ensures the sharing of essential information between all the departments in local authority. Thus this technology enhances the internal and external communication, operations, efficiency within the organization and builds up a positive relationship with its citizens and/or visitors. Figure 2. 1 GIS working as glue, integrate scattered data (Stachowicz, 2004) Web based GIS provides centralized and easy access to spatial data for the users. It is the demand of the users for up-to-date, timely and rapid access to the data. Web based GIS fulfil all these requirements and provide dynamic geographical information to the users in an easy and accessible format. Web based maps assist the users in location finding, route finding and quick decision making. 2. 4 Web Accessibility When we talk about accessibility of a web page, it means that the web page should be accessible to almost every one with all abilities. During the start of World Wide Web, pages were more accessible because almost all web pages consisted of text which could be made more accessible with less complexity. With the advancement of web technologies and hence addition of more complexity, it is now difficult to make web pages accessible to all. Web designers started to include images, frames, streaming audio and video and different kinds of applications, which have made web pages full of hurdles for users with disabilities. (Hackett, 2004) The awareness is on rise about user‘s rights about the access of World Wide Web and there is recognition worldwide about the same rights of access to information on Web for people with disabilities. Legislation about the accessibility of web contents in different countries portrays the importance of the issue of making information on web accessible for all. Richards, 2004) Most of the developed countries have built their own guidelines or refined WCAG guidelines to make web contents more accessible. Increasing accessibility of web content is not only beneficial for people with disabilities but also for common users with lower ebb of resources like lower connection speed, lower processing speed. Mynatt (2000) believes as the average age of world population is increasing as a result t here will be increase in the group of senior citizens accessing information on the web. With aging, most people have deprived some of their abilities like focus, resolve images and distinguish colours. So if we look at cost to benefits ratio, it is clearly indicating more benefits than cost. It may increase the cost one to percent to make website accessible but it will result in increase of users by almost twenty percent. Web Accessibility is directed to address different kind of users and accessibility varies depending upon the disability type of the users. The users which could be addressed by Web Accessibility may have the following disabilities * Visual: From intense degree of blindness to low vision and colour blindness all include in this group * Mobility: People feeling difficulty in using input devices particularly mouse due to immobility or loss of control of relevant muscle * Auditory: people feeling difficulty or disability to listen * Cognitive: peoples having difficulty or disability to understand, learn, memorize or giving attention etc. 2. 5 Importance of Web Accessibility There is general perception that accessibility means web contents should be make accessible to users with disabilities like blind users. The area of web accessibility deals more than this limited view. In broader view Web Accessibility means making web contents available for as many users as possible. The user may range from common user to user with disabilities such as vision, mobility or learning impairment, users having limited network speed, slow processing speed compelling browsers to show text only version of websites and also users with mobile phone and PDAs with limited bandwidth and memory. Jackson, 2003) If we look at the cost benefit equation of making web content accessible we can clearly find this equation giving more benefits than cost by increasing users with substantial effort. For example minor changing of adding ALT tags for images will make large some difference. Advantages of making web contents more accessible can be increased by broadening the definition of â₠¬Ëœwho’ will get gain more access by this adaptation. Elder people are big percent of whole population and if you ignore web accessibility you are simply ignoring large chunk of possible users. Also this portion of population posses more free time and also discretionary spending power. Web contents can be converted into more accessible for adults by making the contents easy to read, reducing cognition and more efficient and easy use of keyboard and mouse. (Richards, 2004) 2. 6 Web Accessibility Guidelines In 1997 the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) was setup by World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to define international standards for users with disabilities. The standards are divided into three different groups. . Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2. User Agent Accessibility Guidelines 3. Authoring Tools Accessibility Guidelines WCAG 1. 0 the first version of web content guidelines is mainly for websites with static information. But with advancement in web technology these guidelines are not sufficient to handle the emerging issues related to accessibility of web contents. To meet this challenging situation W3C‘s Web Accessibility Initiative gave a new version of gu idelines namely WCAG 2. 0 (Reid Snow-Weaver, 2008). Since 1997 W3C‘s Web Accessible Initiative is successfully promoting WCAG around the world. Many organizations have taken benefits from these guidelines in changing their web contents into more accessible form. Also there is more inclination now at national level to adopt these guidelines to standardize the web content. (Kelly et al, 2007) 2. 7 Web Accessibility Evaluation Accessibility of web content is evaluated to check the degree of accessibility available to the contents for users of all kinds. There are different methods to evaluate the web accessibility of any web content. Generally web content can be considered accessible if it follows the regulation provided by WAI‘s WCAG 2. 0 (Villegas et al, 2009). The guidelines provided by WCAG 2. 0 are divided into different set of check points and every checkpoint is assigned different level according to severity (Freire et al, 2008). One of the web accessibility evaluation methods is to involve user in this evaluation process. The user will interact and explore the real problems relating to accessibility. Strictly adopting the guidelines provided by WAI‘s WCAG does not guarantee the success. User’s experience is necessary to validate the accessibility of web content. There are some automated tools to evaluate the accessibility of any web content. According to WAI the following documents can be part of evaluation of web accessibility. a) Preliminary Review of web content for Accessibility b) Conformance evaluation of web content for Accessibility c) Involving Users in Web Accessibility Evaluation d) Evaluation of Web content Accessibility through tools. So evaluation of accessibility of any web content depends upon adherence of guidelines and user satisfaction level. In this thesis project we have evaluate accessibility of GIS web content by firstly using tool to check the adherence of guidelines provided by WAI‘s WCAG 2. 0 and then conduct survey of users with disabilities. 2. 8 What is User Centred Design (UCD) UCD is a broad term and it is defined as the design philosophy or process in which needs, limitations and demands of end users of an interface have been extensively considered in the entire design process. The entire design process revolves around the end users who have core role in the design process. In other words, UCD is a multi-stage problem solving process in which designer not only analyzes how the users interact with the interface but also perform a test to validate their assumptions with respect to user behaviour in real world scenario. The main distinction of UCD from other design philosophies is that UCD optimizes the user interface according to which users feel easiness and want to work rather than bounding the user to change their behaviour according to the design approach. Currently, different UCD models and approaches have been used to design a product and each approach has its own pros and cons. Models assist the software designers in engineering a product for their users. In these models requirement of the users are kept under consideration right from the beginning till to the end of the product cycle. All the following models follow ISO (ISO 13407 model, 1999) standard. These models are as: Cooperative design: This approach evolved in Scandinavia since 1970. End-users are involved very early in the design process. Thus end-user is given a ‘voice’ in the design and development process and ultimately this thing enhances the quality of end results. Cooperative design demands the right set of participants, right location and physical space. It is also essential to create such environment in which all participants can contribute actively to get some meaningful results. (Bodker et al, 2000) Due to cultural difference among users and designers it may be possible that users are unable to understand the language of designers. So for this purpose it is recommended that prototypes such as mock-ups (three dimensional paper based representation) or a paper based outline for web screen shots or other product. Abras et al, 2004) Participatory design: It correlates with the cooperative design in which end users, developers and business representatives work collaboratively. This design model is more beneficial in early stages of design process. This design model gives a lot of advantages such as * Provide equal participation opportunity to technical and non-technical members * Provide the close collaboration between developers and end users * Provide a forum for investigating product related issues. (Gaffney, 1999) Contextual design: Context design also called customer centre design provides the assistance to cross-functional team to reach an agreement on what the customer‘s needs and how to design the product for their customers. Cross-functional team listen the whole story of an interview but confine the concepts and issues related to design problem. Contextual design user says â€Å"When I was coding I was behind a mirror but when I sat together with the user in front of the system, I felt like I was looking through the mirror and becoming aware that there was a human being on the other side†. Holtzblatt, 2001) The term ‘User Centred Design’ was presented by the Donald Norman in 1980s and then this term widely spread after the publication of the book entitled: User-Centred System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction (Norman Draper, 1986). In the book The Psychology of Everyday Things (POET) (Norman, 1988), Norman has further built on UCD concepts. He has proposed four suggestions related to interface design * The interface should be simple enough in order to determine the possible actions at any moment. The things on the interface should be visible. * Current state of the system should be evaluated easily. * Interface provides the natural mappings between the required actions and intentions; between actions and the resulting effect; and between the interpretation of the system state and visible information. According to Donald Norman recommendation, user should be in the centre of the design. Designer should design the interface that assists the users in performing their tasks and users have to put a little effort to learn a system. Small pamphlet should be delivered along with the products but that pamphlets should be understandable. Just to say designer the design of the product should be intuitive is not enough. There are some designs principles that should be adopted to give better outcome. Norman (1988) has recommended seven designs principles that can assist the designers in their task. 1. Utilize the knowledge both in the world and in the head. Build the manual before implementing the design and it should be in understandable format. 2. Structure of the tasks should be simple that giving full control to the user ver tasks. Tasks provide mental aids to the user for easy archival of information. 3. Things should be visible such that if user presses right click (mouse) on an object it exposes its full functionality for the user. 4. Graphics or icons should be used to make the things understandable. 5. Constraints both artificial and natural should be used to restrict the users. 6. After proper error tracking , the error should be displayed before the user in readable and understandable format so that user can perform error recovery. 7. Standardize the action if all else fails to avoid any abnormal action. In short all the work performed by Norman stressed on the exploration of user needs and requirements before designing the product. 2. 9 Advantages and disadvantages of UCD Table 2. 1: Advantages/disadvantages of UCD Advantages Disadvantages 2. 10 Elements of UCD According to Katz-Haas (2004), UCD model have the following four elements. 1. Visibility: Visibility provides the assistance to the user in constructing the mental model about the things. Essential elements such as those that aids in navigation should be highly visible for the user. Visibility is such that user can predict what he can do and what he cannot at a glance. The important information should be made prominent and placed at top place. 2. Accessibility: Accessibility is another element of UCD in which information is made available for the users easily and quickly no matter what the size of the document either it is long or short. Avoid the users from brainstorming to find specific information. Variety of ways have been provided to look into the information such as search function, page no and navigation elements. Chunking’ technique should be used in which information is divided into sections or blocks and relevant information is kept together and organized in a meaningful manner. Bold and italic pattern is used to make the information prominent. 3. Legibility: Text such as text size, font and style should be used that make the information convenient for the readers. It is hard to read such text or information written in ornamental fonts or all in capital letters but making bold and italic to the text can be helpful for the readers. High-figure-ground contrast between text and background can enhance the legibility such as dark text on light ackground. 4. Language: Information should be displayed in short sentences and in simple words instead of using technical terms. Utilize the active voice or verbs for writing information instead of noun strings. 2. 11 UCD and Web based GIS Although GIS are dominating in the market and usage of them are increasing but on the side usability of GIS technology is pitiable. Poorly designed GIS user interface can be made usable by arranging the training for them but this solution is not good according to the economic point of view. Relating to GIS user interface it is said â€Å"GIS user interfaces should be designed such that they fulfil user requirements instead of adapting the end-user to a GIS†. Comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the user requirements acts as a prerequisite for the GIS customization and development and it is said â€Å"User requirements are the criteria against which quality of GIS is tested†. Quality of use is also defined and measured like other technical and economical quality aspects. Quality of use is a multi-dimensional concept in which multiple aspects are checked such as robustness, visibility; learn ability, legibility and accessibility. Quality of use should be evaluated during the customization and development phase in order to get rid of the expensive market failures later. The development of GIS is different from other software development processes as GIS user interfaces are very complex and to make them usable it is essential to tailor them to specific user requirements. Mostly users interact with web based GI data and modify the parameters to achieve their desired results on the screen so it is crucial to provide interactive interface between end-users and the GIS. The design principles of UCD may be helpful for creating effective, efficient, innovative and interactive GIS user interfaces. Focus on end-users Iterative design appropriate allocation of functions between end-user and GIS Multidisciplinary design team (European Commission, 2005) 1. Focus on end-users End-users can contribute a lot in the design process of GI user interface by sharing knowledge and experience about GIS domain, tasks, workflows, object

The Quiet American essays

The Quiet American essays In Graham Greene's The Quiet American, Greene uses the characters Thomas Fowler and Alden Pyle to represent a greater picture. In the interactions among these characters, he is simplifying the situation in Vietnam into a personal model to be viewed. Graham Greene developed the attitudes and personalities of his characters almost to be a condensed legend of the countries they represented. In their actions, and opinions formed on them by others, was a reflection of the general feeling overall in Vietnam. Alden Pyle is the title quiet American sent to Vietnam with orders. Seemingly he is quiet because he is the innocent, neutral party coming to aid by selling plastic. He has a good reputation, and is very curt and proper. Naive is best to superficially describe his demeanor; he is only trying to help. But ignorance is probably better to this character for he does not realize the destruction he is causing and does not realize that he is more meddlesome than helpful. And that is exactly what Graham Greene is trying to portray this character's representation of the United States. Pyle as an individual reflects America as a whole as they were seen as ignorantly trying to interfere in Vietnam, being neutral. But actually harming in trying to help Pyle as a character and as the symbol of his country was portrayed of promising the Vietnamese things, trying to forge for them a new life they did not need nor understand. This is seen with his relationship with Phuong as he woos her away from Thomas Fowler with promises of skyscrapers and the Statue of Liberty. Phuong, can be seen as the innocent country Vietnam whose promising lands pose the stage for a war between the politics of greedier forces. Phuong and the majority of Vietnam, the peasants, know nothing but their simple existence. They farm their rice paddies; they sustain themselves- that is all they know. No matter who wins the war, how will it affect most ...

Teamwork Icebreaker Games and Excercises

Teamwork Icebreaker Games and Excercises Icebreakers are exercises that are designed to facilitate interactions. They are often used at meetings, workshops, classrooms, or other group functions to introduce people who dont know each other, spark conversations among people who dont typically converse or help people learn  how to work together. Icebreakers are usually formatted as a game or exercise so that everyone can relax and fun. Some icebreakers also have a competitive element.   Why Icebreakers Help With Team Building Icebreakers games and exercises can help with team building when they require everyone in the group to work together to accomplish a specific task or goal. For example, the group may have to work together to conceptualize and implement a strategy to achieve the task. This sort of teamwork can improve communication among group members and may even help to energize and motivate a team.   Every Team Needs a Leader Icebreakers can also break down barriers among participants who are at different places in the chain of command in an organization - such as a supervisor and the people they supervise. People who normally dont take the lead on a team may have an opportunity to do so during an icebreaker game. This is empowering for many people and may help to identify people in the group with leadership capability and potential.   Teamwork Icebreaker Games The  icebreaker games shown below can be used for both large and small groups. If you have a relatively large group, you may want to consider splitting the attendants into several smaller groups. Although each game is different, they all have a common goal: get the group to complete a task within a specific amount of time. If you have more than one group, you can add a competition element to the game by seeing which team can complete an assigned task the fastest. Sample tasks to try: Build a house of cards using 10 cards.Form a line according to height (tallest to shortest or shortest to tallest).Think up and write down 20 words that start with the letter T.Create and write down 5 questions that have the same answer. After the icebreaker game ends, ask the teams to describe the strategy they used to work together and accomplish the task. Discuss some of the strengths and weaknesses of the strategy. This will help all of the group members learn from each other. As you play more and more icebreaker games, you will notice that the group tries to hone their strategies to improve from one game to the next.   More Icebreaker Games for Teams A couple of  other icebreaker games that you might want to try to encourage teamwork and team building include: Team Building Puzzler - This game encourages multiple teams to compete against each other in a puzzle building competition.The Ball Game - This classic group icebreaker is a great way to help people in small or large groups build trust and get to know each other better.

Just War Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Just War Theory - Essay Example However, two problems arise when trying to justify the use of JWT in shaping the United States and allies’ strategies in Afghanistan, where it is fighting an untraditional enemy that does not share the same kind of ethical ideals. The first problem arises from the thought of each of two sides in the nontraditional war as moral agents, when one has clearly rejected the moral code the other follows. Since a moral code sets the ethical guidelines governing a community, when one party does not accept the moral code, the one that does accept the code is not obligated to follow that code. For instance, it is generally accepted that killing an animal that is known to be dangerous is ethical, insofar as doing so protects other members of the moral community from being harmed. Similarly, if a nontraditional army does not accept these rules of conduct, like the animal, it is well within the moral right of the traditional one to ensure its enemy does not harm another member of the moral community. From this assumption that militaries are moral agents, and the fact that moral codes provide the ethical guidelines for the community, an entity that does not accept the moral code is not obligated to ethical treatment accordi ng to this code. A war is nothing more than murder of other human beings; but instead of being punishable murder, it is sanctioned by states. JTW theory proposes the means by which one can create a more ethical war, but it does not address the issue of whether war itself is ethical. This relatively conservative answer to whether JTW applies to a nontraditional war is supplemented by a second problem, which is tangentially addressed in â€Å"The Call to Arms†1. This issue has to deal with the source of JTW moral prescriptions, and whether a nontraditional fighting force like that seen in Afghanistan is to be dealt with ethical principles based on notions like â€Å"Christian love† or within the tradition

Conflict within an Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Conflict within an Organization - Essay Example Inside and outside stakeholders, such as employees, management, and shareholders, however, competes over their share of the rewards and resources that the organization generates. To grow, change, and survive, an organization must manage both cooperation and competition among stakeholders (Gasparino & Raghavan, 2001; March, 1962). Organizational conflict is the clash that occurs when the goal-directed behavior of one group blocks or thwarts the goals of another. Conflict can be beneficial because it can overcome organizational inertia and lead to organizational learning and change (Coser, 1956; Robbins, 1974). When conflict within an organization or conflict between an organization and elements in its environment arises, the organization and its managers must reevaluate their view of the world. Conflict between different managers or between different stakeholder groups can improve decision-making and organizational learning by revealing new ways of looking at a problem or the false or erroneous assumptions that distort decision-making. For example, conflict at AT&T between the board of directors and top managers about the slow pace at which top managers were restructuring the company caused a radical change in managerial attitudes (Hymowitz, 2001; Bernstein et al, 2000). A new top-management team was appointed to increase the pace of change and to overcome AT&T's conservative approach. Similarly, conflict between divisional managers at IBM resulted in a major change in organizational focus, from a purely mainframe focus to a more consulting-oriented focus (Nugent, 2002). Beyond a certain point, however, conflict stops being a force for good and becomes a cause of organizational decline. Innovation is, of course, more or less impossible in such a setting. An organization in trouble spends a lot of time making decisions-time that it cannot afford because it needs to adapt quickly to turn itself around. Thus, although some conflict can jolt an organization out of inertia, too much conflict can cause organizational inertia: As different groups fight for their own positions and interests, they fail to arrive at consensus, and the organization drifts along; failure to change makes the organization go from bad to worse (Amason, 1996). At first, many organization theorists regarded conflict as wholly dysfunctional because it was believed to be the antithesis of cooperation. It was generally interpreted as a sign of a defective or an incomplete social structure. Therefore, early conflict theorists proposed that the appropriate response was the creation of structural mechanisms for dealing with issues that generate conflict. Committees, task forces, liaison roles, and many other forms of coordination were recommended for this purpose (Galbraith, 1977). The second phase of theorizing about organizational conflict developed around American organization theorist Louis Pondy's observation that, although conflict may be unpleasant, it is an inevitable part of organizing (1967). In Pondy's view conflict may still be regarded as dysfunctional, however, as a natural condition, conflict is unavoidable and should be accepted. This phase of study led to theoretical interest in the sources of conflict, and a search for understanding of its fundamental conditions. The natural view of conflict helped managers confront conflicts they could not alter

Why Is Credentialing Important Essay Example for Free

Why Is Credentialing Important Essay Physicians in general often undergo credentialing by the medical institutions and managed care organizations they want to work for and be affiliated with. Such organizations include hospitals, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), and preferred provider organizations (PPOs) which are responsible in providing quality services to their subscribers (Sobelman, 2001). According to Freed et al (2006, p. 913) â€Å"credentialing is a systematic approach to the collection, review, and verification of a practitioners professional qualification†. A practitioners qualification can be assessed based on his or her professional license, certification, educational background and preparation, clinical experience and professional activity and practices (Jones, nd). Credentialing therefore is important in evaluating and assessing the competence of medical practitioners. It is important to both the physicians and medical institutions because credentialing serves as the basis of maintaining quality health care and patient safety (Norcal, 1999, p. 1). Basically, credentialing is a necessity for almost every healthcare providers particularly the physicians for they are directly responsible for the patients treatment outcomes. Credentialing is an ongoing process (Rozovsky et al, 1994) that involves review and verification of the physicians current professional license, current, education, training, hospital privileges and levels of liability insurance as well as review of the physicians office if applicable to determine the quality of service the physician provide to his own clients (Sobelman, 2001). It is an ongoing and continuous process because of the need to ensure that the training and practices of the physicians are aligned with the changing needs of the patients. The processes involved in credentialing are necessary particularly the validation of certificates, training and current hospital privileges as well as the Drug Enforcement Administration and Controlled Drug Substance Certificates because these are very important in avoiding any possible risk and professional liabilities in which the managed care organizations can be held liable. Certificates in particular assured the public that the physician has successfully completed an accredited educational programs, examinations and evaluations, and provide assurance that the physician possess the skills, expertise, knowledge and experience required in practicing his profession (Hillemeier, 2004) When the physicians capability, scope of practice and specializations are known, risks and liabilities are avoided and managed. From this, it can be viewed that managed care organizations conduct credentialing of physicians as part of their risk management activities. Defining, risk management, â€Å" it is a planned and systematic process of reducing and/or eliminating the probability that losses will occur† (Yale New Haven Hospital, n. d). It is very common that when patients has complaints regarding the quality of care given to them, the hospital or HMO lose patients or subscribers that could have provided them better profitability. Complaints from patients and subscribers also pose threat as it can decrease the level of trust patients and the public have for the organization. Thus, managed care organizations see to it that the physicians who will work for them have undergone credentialing which must be designed to aid organizations in choosing competent physicians that has the capability of providing quality care for their patients. Organizations are aware that competent physicians are an important asset to the organization. On the part of the physicians themselves, credentialing broadens the scope of their practice. The more the credentials a physician holds, the more clinical activities he will be authorized to perform. Therefore credentialing is a process that benefits both the organization and the physicians as well as the public. Because of credentialing, physicians and organizations have aimed to improve the competence and quality of healthcare services they offer and provide. Credentialing raises the standards of healthcare organizations. References: Freed, G. , Singer, D. , Lakhani, I. , et al (2006) Use of Board Certification and Recertification of Pediatricians in Health Plan Credentialing Policies, The Journal of American Medical Association, 295:913-918 Hillemeier A, (2004). Recertification now requires a secure examination. Journal of Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. ,38:376-377 Jones, Dolores, Reimbursement, Privileging, and Credentialing for Pediatric Nurse Practitioners, Retrieved online on February 24, 2007 www.medscape.com/

natural gas and the future of energy Essay -- essays research papers

Natural Gas and the Future of Energy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Until recently natural gas was considered the dirty brother of oil. Natural gas was often stranded and left undeveloped, often wasting it. Oftentimes natural gas was considered ‘unusable’ and ‘worthless’ compared to oil. But now that the oil is running out a new light is being shown on natural gas. Today natural gas is very much in favor as a clean fossil fuel, especially for electricity generation in industrialized countries. â€Å"Global proven gas reserves are 5501 TcM with around 60 years of production at current utilization rates compared to 40 years for oil,† writes Pradeep Kurup. According to the latest numbers people could be using more gas than oil by 2030. According to Kurup, â€Å"that means an even greater incremental growth in both gas supply and transportation than the industry has seen up to date, with nearly 25% of all natural gas produced now crossing an international border.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Natural gas is created from the anaerobic decay of organic material. You can find it in oil fields and natural gas fields and in most swampy or marshy areas. Natural gas is also generated by animals during digestion. Natural gas is primarily composed of methane which happens to be the lightest of the hydrocarbon molecules. The other components of natural gas consist of heavier hydrocarbon molecules such as ethane, butane, and propane. Hydrogen sulfide and mercury are common contaminants, which must be removed prior to most uses. Natural gas is emerging as the most important energy source for the future because it has an abundance of uses and is found almost anywhere. The abundant supply of natural gas makes it a fine candidate to replace oil as the dominating source of energy. A lot of people who freaked out when word about peak oil surfaced now can find comfort in natural gas. Most people probably don’t realize that natural gas can not only be used as a replacement for gasoline but it can also be used to generate electricity through the use of both gas and steam turbines. A special â€Å"combined cycle mode† has been developed by combining both the gas and the steam turbines. On top of all of the facts I have already posted, natural gas also burns cleaner and thus more efficiently than other fossil fuels creating... ...t maybe this is just al about money like everything else. Maybe the government is hoarding oil and is just saying there is an oil crisis. Lots of questions, but not very many answers. Works Cited 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Energy for the future - Hydrogen and Fuel Cell industry sets out its blueprint. European Commission. 3-17-05 http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/environment  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Swank, J. Grant Jr. Rice: India Upgraded with US RE Future Powers. Mitch News.com. 3-28-05 http://www.michnews.com/artman/publish/article_7474.shtml 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kurup, Pradeep. Why Natural Gas’s the Future of Energy. Times Internet Network. 3-28-05 http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1062958.cms 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The DaimlerChrysler Website: http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/dccom/0,,0-5-7179-1-460443-1-0-0-0-0-0-8-7165-0-0-0-0-0-0-0,00.html 5. Okoye, Sam Ejike. Cold Fusion, the Unlimited Energy Source: A Myth or Reality? Nigeria World. 3-27-05 http://nigeriaworld.com/articles/2005/mar/271.html

The Silver Linings Playbook Chapter 2

He Does Not Preach Pessimism My workout is interrupted midday, when Mom descends the basement stairs and says I have an appointment with Dr. Patel. I ask if I can go later that night, after I have completed my daily weights routine, but Mom says I'll have to go back to the bad place in Baltimore if I do not keep my appointments with Dr. Patel, and she even references the court ruling, telling me I can read the paperwork if I don't believe her. So I shower, and then Mom drives me to Dr. Patel's office, which is the first floor of a big house in Voorhees, just off Haddonfield – Berlin Road. When we arrive, I take a seat in the waiting room as Mom fills out some more paperwork. By now, ten trees must have been cut down just to document my mental health, which Nikki will hate hearing, as she is an avid environmentalist who gave me at least one tree in the rain forest every Christmas – which was really only a piece of paper stating I owned the tree – and I do feel bad now for making fun of those gifts and won't ever poke fun at the diminishing rain forest in the future when Nikki comes back. As I sit there flipping through a Sports Illustrated, listening to the easy-listening station Dr. Patel pumps into his waiting room, suddenly I'm hearing sexy synthesizer chords, faint highhat taps, the kick drum thumping out an erotic heartbeat, the twinkling of fairy dust, and then the evil bright soprano saxophone. You know the title: â€Å"Songbird.† And I'm out of my seat, screaming, kicking chairs, flipping the coffee table, picking up piles of magazines and throwing them against the wall, yelling, â€Å"It's not fair! I won't tolerate any tricks! I'm not an emotional lab rat!† And then a small Indian man – maybe only five feet tall, wearing a cable-knit sweater in August, suit pants, and shiny white tennis shoes – is calmly asking me what's wrong. â€Å"Turn off that music!† I yell. â€Å"Shut it off! Right now!† The tiny man is Dr. Patel, I realize, because he tells his secretary to turn off the music, and when she obeys, Kenny G is out of my head and I stop yelling. I cover my face with my hands so no one will see me crying, and after a minute or so, my mother begins rubbing my back. So much silence – and then Dr. Patel asks me into his office. I follow him reluctantly as Mom helps the secretary clean up the mess I made. His office is pleasantly strange. Two leather recliners face each other, and spider-looking plants – long vines full of white-and-green leaves – hang down from the ceiling to frame the bay window that overlooks a stone birdbath and a garden of colorful flowers. But there is absolutely nothing else in the room except a box of tissues on the short length of floor between the recliners. The floor is a shiny yellow hardwood, and the ceiling and walls are painted to look like the sky – real-looking clouds float all around the office, which I take as a good omen, since I love clouds. A single light occupies the center of the ceiling, like a glowing upside-down vanilla-icing cake, but the ceiling around the light is painted to look like the sun. Friendly rays shoot out from the center. I have to admit I feel calm as soon as I enter Dr. Patel's office and do not really mind anymore that I heard the Kenny G song. Dr. Patel asks me which recliner I want to relax in. I pick the black over the brown and immediately regret my decision, thinking that choosing black makes me seem more depressed than if I had chosen brown, and really, I'm not depressed at all. When Dr. Patel sits down, he pulls the lever on the side of his chair, which makes the footrest rise. He leans back and laces his fingers behind his tiny head, as if he were about to watch a ball game. â€Å"Relax,† he says. â€Å"And no Dr. Patel. Call me Cliff. I like to keep sessions informal. Friendly, right?† He seems nice enough, so I pull my lever, lean back, and try to relax. â€Å"So,† he says. â€Å"The Kenny G song really got to you. I can't say I'm a fan either, but †¦Ã¢â‚¬  I close my eyes, hum a single note, and silently count to ten, blanking my mind. When I open my eyes, he says, â€Å"You want to talk about Kenny G?† I close my eyes, hum a single note, and silently count to ten, blanking my mind. â€Å"Okay. Want to tell me about Nikki?† â€Å"Why do you want to know about Nikki?† I say, too defensively, I admit. â€Å"If I am going to help you, Pat, I need to know you, right? Your mother tells me you wish to be reunited with Nikki, that this is your biggest life goal – so I figure we best start there.† I begin to feel better because he does not say a reunion is out of the question, which seems to imply that Dr. Patel feels as though reconciling with my wife is still possible. â€Å"Nikki? She's great,† I say, and then smile, feeling the warmth that fills my chest whenever I say her name, whenever I see her face in my mind. â€Å"She's the best thing that ever happened to me. I love her more than life itself. And I just can't wait until apart time is over.† â€Å"Apart time?† â€Å"Yeah. Apart time.† â€Å"What is apart time?† â€Å"A few months ago I agreed to give Nikki some space, and she agreed to come back to me when she felt like she had worked out her own issues enough so we could be together again. So we are sort of separated, but only temporarily.† â€Å"Why did you separate?† â€Å"Mostly because I didn't appreciate her and was a workaholic – chairing the Jefferson High School History Department and coaching three sports. I was never home, and she got lonely. Also I sort of let my appearance go, to the point where I was maybe ten to seventy pounds overweight, but I'm working on all that and am now more than willing to go into couples counseling like she wanted me to, because I'm a changed man.† â€Å"Did you set a date?† â€Å"A date?† â€Å"For the end of apart time.† â€Å"No.† â€Å"So apart time is something that will go on indefinitely?† â€Å"Theoretically, I guess – yes. Especially since I'm not allowed to contact Nikki or her family.† â€Å"Why's that?† â€Å"Umm †¦ I don't know, really. I mean – I love my in-laws as much as I love Nikki. But it doesn't matter, because I'm thinking that Nikki will be back sooner than later, and then she'll straighten everything out with her parents.† â€Å"On what do you base your thinking?† he asks, but nicely, with a friendly smile on his face. â€Å"I believe in happy endings,† I tell him. â€Å"And it feels like this movie has gone on for the right amount of time.† â€Å"Movie?† Dr. Patel says, and I think he would look exactly like Gandhi if he had those wire-rim glasses and a shaved head, which is weird, especially since we are in leather recliners in such a bright, happy room and well, Gandhi is dead, right? â€Å"Yeah,† I say. â€Å"Haven't you ever noticed that life is like a series of movies?† â€Å"No. Tell me.† â€Å"Well, you have adventures. All start out with troubles, but then you admit your problems and become a better person by working really hard, which is what fertilizes the happy ending and allows it to bloom – just like the end of all the Rocky films, Rudy, The Karate Kid, the Star Wars and Indiana Jones trilogies, and The Goonies, which are my favorite films, even though I have sworn off movies until Nikki returns, because now my own life is the movie I will watch, and well, it's always on. Plus I know it's almost time for the happy ending, when Nikki will come back, because I have improved myself so very much through physical fitness and medication and therapy.† â€Å"Oh, I see.† Dr. Patel smiles. â€Å"I like happy endings too, Pat.† â€Å"So you agree with me. You think my wife will come back soon?† â€Å"Time will tell,† Dr. Patel says, and I know right then that Cliff and I are going to get along, because he does not preach pessimism like Dr. Timbers and the staff at the bad place; Cliff doesn't say I need to face what he thinks is my reality. â€Å"It's funny, because all the other therapists I've seen said that Nikki wouldn't be back. Even after I told them about the life improvements I have been making, how I am bettering myself, they still were always ‘hating on me,' which is an expression I learned from my black friend Danny.† â€Å"People can be cruel,† he says with a sympathetic look that makes me trust him even more. And right then I realize that he is not writing down all my words in a file, which I really appreciate, let me tell you. I tell him I like the room, and we talk about my love of clouds and how most people lose the ability to see silver linings even though they are always there above us almost every day. I ask him questions about his family, just to be nice, and it turns out he has a daughter whose high school field hockey team is ranked second in South Jersey. Also he has a son in elementary school who wants to be a ventriloquist and even practices nightly with a wooden dummy named Grover Cleveland, who, incidentally, was also the only U.S. president to serve two terms that were not back-to-back. I don't really get why Cliff's son named his wooden dummy after our twenty-second and twenty-fourth president, although I do not say so. Next, Cliff says he has a wife named Sonja, who painted the room so beautifully, which leads to our discussion about how great women are and how it's important to treasure your woman while you have her because if you don't, you can lose her pretty quickly – as God really wants us to appreciate our women. I tell Cliff I hope he never has to experience apart time, and he says he hopes my apart time will end soon, which is a pretty nice thing to say. Before I leave, Cliff says he will be changing my medication, which could lead to some unwanted side effects, and that I have to report any discomfort or sleeplessness or anxiety or anything else to my mother immediately – because it might take some time for him to find the right combination of drugs – and I promise him I will. On the drive home I tell my mother I really like Dr. Cliff Patel and am feeling much more hopeful about my therapy. I thank her for getting me out of the bad place, saying Nikki is far more likely to come to Collingswood than to a mental institution, and when I say this, Mom starts to cry, which is so strange. She even pulls off the road, rests her head against the steering wheel, and with the engine running, she cries for a long time – sniffling and trembling and making crying noises. So I rub her back, like she did for me in Dr. Patel's office when that certain song came on, and after ten minutes or so, she simply stops crying and drives me home. To make up for the hour I spent sitting around with Cliff, I work out until late in the evening, and when I go to bed, my father is still in his office with the door shut, so another day passes without my talking to Dad. I think it's strange to live in a house with someone you cannot talk to – especially when that someone is your father – and the thought makes me a little sad. Since Mom has not been to the library yet, I have nothing to read. So I close my eyes and think about Nikki until she comes to be with me in my dreams – like always.

Why I should go to the promotion board

Here are a couple of reasons why I believe I should be go to the promotion board. First, I'm ready to further my career as a Non Commissioned Officer. Being the best I can be is all I've ever wanted and I'm ready to take the next step in the Army with being promoted to Staff Sergeant. Secondly, I'm ready to take on more responsibility as that shows that I'm becoming a better leader because with more rank comes more responsibility.I feel that I am more than qualified to attend the promotion board. I have more than enough experience as an NCO that this would be a prominent move In the right direction. In these current times I feel that by going to the promotion board upon passing It I will be able to Impose my will as a Staff Sergeant and lead more soldiers to becoming great leaders themselves. I am deserving of this opportunity and have been waiting my chance for a great while now.This is the time and this is the season or a break through. In closing, I'm not asking for too much but t o be afforded the opportunity to at least have a chance to attend the promotion board. I will be well prepared and motivated to do my best at the board. This will be a great step towards my career progression. My family would be proud of me, and this would be one of my most recent accomplishments, among many. I want to do so much more for the Army, but I feel limited at the level I am at this moment.I would greatly appreciate this opportunity ND once I've gone to the board, you will understand why I feel the way I feel about why I should go to the board. Thank you. Why I should go to the promotion board By AP_daddy SST Phillips, Antennae. Can be is all Vive ever wanted and I'm ready to take the next step in the Army with than enough experience as an NCO that this would be a prominent move in the right passing it I will be able to impose my will as a Staff Sergeant and lead more soldiers and once Vive gone to the board, you will understand why I feel the way I feel about.

Misjudgement of A rapper essays

Misjudgement of A rapper essays The Merriam-Webster Colligate dictionary defines Hip-Hop as a subculture especially of inner-city youths whose amusements include rap music, graffiti, and break dancing; an element or art form prevalent within this subculture. This is a general and to me, a very discriminatory definition that gives one the impression that hip-hop is just a black thing. Hip-hop is an art form, a history and a form of expression that should be treated with the same respect as rock, soul and popular music. Hip Hop is the foundation of rap and is to be defined by a history and not as a single phrase. Hip Hop includes deejaying, emceeing/rapping, break dancing and graffiti art. These art forms as we know them today, originated in the Bronx section of New York City around the late 1970s. Hip Hop has thrived within the United States and is now just recently beginning to enjoy worldwide exposure. From a personal perspective, Hip Hop has been one of the main contributing factors that helped limit gang violence due to the fact that many adults found it relaxing to channel their anger and aggressions into these art forms which eventually became the ultimate expression of one's self To many, hip hop is just Gangster rap. When the word hip-hop is mentioned, artists such as NWA, Ice T and Snoop Doggy Dogg come to mind. Who ever stops and thinks about James Brown, Curtis Mayfield or Isaac Hayes? Those are the original pioneers of hip-hop, the men who laid down the foundation for people to dance and have fun. Since the introduction of hip hop in the late 70s, it has manifested itself into many sub cultures such as bass beats, Gangsta rap and underground rap. If I were to write about all of the different forms if hip hop, this would be a dissertation or a thesis but I hope to give many solid definitions of Hip Hop that will clear up some of the negative condemnations the art form carries. Now if you ask most people to give a ...

The Battle of Germantown in the American Revolution

The Battle of Germantown in the American Revolution The Battle of Germantown took place during the 1777 Philadelphia Campaign of the American Revolution (1775-1783). Fought less than a month after the British victory at the Battle of the Brandywine (September 11), the Battle of Germantown took place on October 4, 1777, outside the city of Philadelphia. Armies Commanders Americans General George Washington11,000 men British General Sir William Howe9,000 men The Philadelphia Campaign In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne set forth a plan for defeating the Americans. Convinced that New England was the heart of the rebellion, he intended to cut the region off from the other colonies by advancing down the Lake Champlain-Hudson River corridor while a second force, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, moved east from Lake Ontario and down the Mohawk River. Meeting at Albany, Burgoyne and St. Leger would press down the Hudson towards New York City. It was his hope that General Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief in North America, would move up the river to aid his advance. Though given approval by Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain, Howes role in the scheme was never clearly defined and issues of his seniority precluded Burgoyne from issuing him orders. While Germain had given his consent for Burgoynes operation, he had also approved a plan submitted by Howe which called for the capture of the American capital at Philadelphia. Giving his own operation preference, Howe commenced preparations for striking southwest.   Ruling out marching overland, he coordinated with the Royal Navy and made plans to move against Philadelphia by sea. Leaving a small force under Major General Henry Clinton at New York, he embarked 13,000 men on transports and sailed south. Entering the Chesapeake Bay, the fleet sailed north and the army came ashore at Head of Elk, MD on August 25, 1777. In position with 8,000 Continentals and 3,000 militia to defend the capital, American commander General George Washington dispatched units to track and harass Howes army. After initial skirmishing at Coochs Bridge near Newark, DE on September 3, Washington formed a defensive line behind the Brandywine River. Moving against the Americans, Howe opened the the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. As the fighting progressed, he employed similar flanking tactics to those used at Long Island the previous year and was able to drive the Americans from the field. Following their victory at Brandywine, British forces under Howe captured the colonial capital of Philadelphia. Unable to prevent this, Washington moved the Continental Army to a position along Perkiomen Creek between Pennypackers Mills and Trappe, PA, approximately 30 miles northwest of the city. Concerned about the American army, Howe left a garrison of 3,000 men in Philadelphia and moved with 9,000 to Germantown. Five miles from the city, Germantown provided the British with a position to block the approaches to the city. Washingtons Plan Alerted to Howes movement, Washington saw an opportunity to strike a blow against the British while he had numerical superiority. Meeting with his officers, Washington developed a complicated attack plan which called for four columns to hit the British simultaneously. If the assault proceeded as planned, it would lead to the British being caught in a double envelopment. At Germantown, Howe formed his main defensive line along the Schoolhouse and Church Lanes with Hessian Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen commanding the left and Major General James Grant leading the right. On the evening of October 3, Washingtons four columns moved out. The plan called for Major General Nathanael Greene to lead a strong column against the British right, while Washington led a force down the main Germantown Road. These attacks were to be supported by columns of militia which were to strike the British flanks. All of the American forces were to be in position â€Å"precisely at 5 o’clock with charged bayonets and without firing.† As at Trenton the previous December, it was Washingtons goal to take the British by surprise. Problems Arise Marching through the darkness, communications quickly broke down between the American columns and two were behind schedule. In the center, Washingtons men arrived as scheduled, but hesitated as there was no word from the other columns. This was largely due to the fact that Greenes men and the militia, led by General William Smallwood, had become lost in the darkness and heavy morning fog. Believing that Greene was in position, Washington ordered the attack to commence. Led by Major General John Sullivans division, Washingtons men moved to engage British pickets in the hamlet of Mount Airy. American Advance In heavy fighting, Sullivans men forced the British to retreat back towards Germantown. Falling back, six companies (120 men) of the 40th Foot, under Colonel Thomas Musgrave, fortified the stone home of Benjamin Chew, Cliveden, and prepared to make a stand. Fully deploying his men, with Sullivans division on the right and Brigadier General Anthony Waynes on the left, Washington bypassed Cliveden and pushed on through the fog towards Germantown. Around this time, the militia column assigned to attack the British left arrived and briefly engaged von Knyphausens men before withdrawing. Reaching the Cliveden with his staff, Washington was convinced by Brigadier General Henry Knox that such a strongpoint could not be left in their rear. As a result, Brigadier General William Maxwells reserve brigade was brought up to storm the house. Supported by Knoxs artillery, Maxwells men made several futile assaults against Musgraves position. At the front, Sullivan and Waynes men were exerting heavy pressure on the British center when Greenes men finally arrived on the field. The British Recover After pushing British pickets out of Lukens Mill, Greene advanced with Major General Adam Stephens division on the right, his own division in the center, and Brigadier General Alexander McDougalls brigade on the left. Moving through the fog, Greenes men began to roll up the British right. In the fog, and perhaps because he was intoxicated, Stephen and his men erred and veered right, encountering Waynes flank and rear. Confused in the fog, and thinking that they had found the British, Stephens men opened fire. Waynes men, who were in the midst of an attack, turned and returned fire. Having been attacked from the rear and hearing the sound of Maxwells assault on Cliveden, Waynes men began to fall back believing they were about to be cut off. With Waynes men retreating, Sullivan was forced to withdraw as well. Along with Greenes line of advance, his men were making good progress but soon became unsupported as McDougalls men wandered away to the left. This opened Greenes flank to attacks from the Queens Rangers. Despite this, the 9th Virginia managed to make it to Market Square in the center of Germantown. Hearing the cheers of the Virginians through the fog, the British quickly counterattacked and captured most of the regiment. This success, coupled with the arrival of reinforcements from Philadelphia led by Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis led to a general counterattack all along the line. Learning that Sullivan had retreated, Greene ordered his men to disengage retreat ending the battle. The Aftermath of the Battle The defeat at Germantown cost Washington 1,073 killed, wounded, and captured. British losses were lighter and numbered 521 killed and wounded. The loss ended American hopes of recapturing Philadelphia and forced Washington to fall back and regroup. In the wake of the Philadelphia Campaign, Washington and the army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. Though beaten at Germantown, American fortunes changed later that month with the key victory at the Battle of Saratoga when Burgoynes thrust south was defeated and his army captured.